Consequently, it is not unusual to find a Hikikomori who has been withdrawn for over a decade ( Sakai et al., 2011). In fact, both the numbers of Hikikomori and school refusers have been increasing ( Jones, 2006) for the obvious reason that it becomes increasingly difficult to reintegrate into society the longer one remains socially withdrawn. Possible triggers of Hikikomori might include school absenteeism ( futoukou) or job insecurity. Also, a recent epidemiological study confirmed a life-time prevalence rate of about 1.2%, or a little over 1.5 million individuals in the Japanese population, who are or have been Hikikomori, with half of them not having a comorbid DSM-IV diagnosis ( Koyama et al., 2010). The Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare defined NEET as “people who are not employed, not in school, not a homemaker, and not seeking a job” and Hikikomori as “those who are neither in work nor school, do not have social interactions and are socially withdrawn for more than 6 months.”īased on these classification criteria, the Cabinet Office of the Japanese Government (2010) estimated that there were about 700,000 Hikikomori. Specifically, many of them are emerging as “NEETs (Not in Employment Education or Training Genda, 2005)” or “Hikikomori” (socially withdrawn/isolated). Since entering the twenty-first century, an increasing proportion of young Japanese have become socially/culturally marginalized. NEET and Hikikomori and Psychological Spectra The relationship between these psychological tendencies and actually becoming marginalized across cultures is discussed. The results suggested that NHR is related to psychological tendencies common in the marginalized segments of society. Study 2 investigated and confirmed the validity of the scale by examining NHR differences between occupational groups. Based on this idea, we identified three related risk factors in our NHR spectrum scale: (1) Freeter lifestyle preference, which in Japan refers to the tendency to consciously choose to not work despite job availabilities, (2) a lack of self-competence, and (3) having unclear ambitions for the future (Study 1).
In this study, we developed a NEET-Hikikomori Risk Factors (NHR) scale that treats NEET/Hikikomori not as a set of distinct diagnoses, but as a spectrum of psychological tendencies associated with the risk of being marginalized in society. Specifically, we believe that both NEET and Hikikomori show psychological tendencies that deviate from those governed by mainstream cultural attitudes, values, and behaviors, with the difference between NEET and Hikikomori being largely a matter of degree. Though the behavioral symptoms of NEET and Hikikomori can be differentiated, some commonalities in psychological features can be found. The phenomena of NEET/Hikikomori (occupational/social withdrawal) have attracted global attention in recent years.
Yukiko Uchida 1 * and Vinai Norasakkunkit 2
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